Essay on An Analysis of Socio-Cultural Impacts on Songkran Festival in Bangkog, Thailand

It is not a secret that events play an important role in the lives of communities. Events not only provide a variety of activities and significant spending outlets for local population, but also they are effectively used to improve the image of the local community. Moreover, “events are considered as having an integrated effect when introduced into a social system.” (Tassiopoulos & Johnson, 2009: 76). In addition, it is found that events can be used as a vehicle to improve social and interpersonal relationships between the community members and visitors, to strengthen mutual understanding and for individuals’ well-being, in accordance with Tassiopoulos and Johnson (2009: 77). As culture can be used as a special mechanism “through which individuals and communities define themselves”, festivals as special cultural events play a significant role in the development of any society, in accordance with Ian Yeoman, Martin Robertson, Jane Ali-Knight, Siobhan Drummond and Una McMahon-Beattie (2012: 5).

Academic literature suggests that today most events have positive contribution to the local communities (Soteriades & Dimou, 2011: 329).  The majority of sources prove the fact that cultural festivals and events contribute to both the development of tourism destination and to the arts world (Yeoman, 2012: 6). That is why many cultural events are now competing with each other in terms of their socio-cultural and economic impacts. However, it is clear that all cultural events, including festivals, are growing both internationally and can be viewed as “significant economic and cultural drivers for communities and host destinations”, in accordance with Ian Yeoman, Martin Robertson, Jane Ali-Knight, Siobhan Drummond and Una McMahon-Beattie (2012: 6). This chapter reviews the related literature, and identifies the major issues connected with event management.

In the research which analyzes the major socio-cultural impacts of events by the use of Songkran festival as a case study, it is of great importance to gather the appropriate information for the research. This information can be used in evaluation of the significance of such events as festivals, and can help to avoid negative impacts of event management in the nearest future. Chapter 2 provides literature reviews on the most significant topics for the research work. The first section of this chapter represents an overview of the literature used in the research. The second section defines events, special events and gives classification of events. The third section provides stakeholder analysis. The fourth section represents information on the major impacts of events, while the fifth section refers to socio-cultural impacts and provides some recommendations to restrict the negative impacts and encourage the positive impacts for the future. The major factors that affect local resident perception of the Songkran festival are discussed on the sixth section.

2.2 Classification of the Songkran Festival

In order to analyze the Songkran festival and the major socio-cultural impacts created by this event, it is very important to define the terms event, event management and special event. This information will help to understand classification of events and determine what type of event the Songkran festival is.

2.2.1 Definition of Event

According to Donald Getz, “event is an occurrence at a given place and time.” (2012: 18). By definition, events have a beginning and an end. Although events are considered to be the so-called “temporal phenomena”, they require the appropriate event program or schedule, which is planned in details, and widely publicized in advance. All planned events are held at a particular place or places (Getz, 2012: 19).

2.2.2 Definition of Event Management

Due to the significant role of events in the lives of communities, many scientists have already discussed the phenomenon of event in literature, and they state that event management can be viewed as “an interdisciplinary task field requiring effective and efficient cooperation between diverse partners”, in accordance with Oliver Thomas, Bettina Hermes and Peter Loos (2008: 443).  Moreover, the following definition is effectively used in practice: “Event management comprises the coordination of all of the tasks and activities necessary for the execution of an event regarding its strategy, planning, implementation and control.” (Thomas et al., 2009: 445). According to Tahir Rashid, Razaq Raj and Paul Walters, the term event management can be defined as “the capability and control of the process of purpose, people and place.” (2008: 11).

As event management has already become an industry, it is widely spread in the world. There are thousands of event companies and millions of event managers who are engaged in this business. It is known that events have always been part of the history of any country and culture (Fredline et al., 2003: 67).  It means that events are used to celebrate different landmarks both in public and private life of the community members. As a rule, events can be stages at the international, national and local levels, according to Torkildsen (2005: 466).  It is not a secret that events involve the community and increase awareness of the community members. Moreover, events are different and have different aims and objectives. Some events are used to show talents, while others provide entertainment and fun, and adventure (Torkildsen, 2005: 473).

In addition, it is found that event management industry grows and consolidates worldwide, that is why “event management associations play an increasingly significant role in professional support to the industry and its managers” (Arcodia & Reid, 2008: 60). It means that event management associations provide new coming companies and existing practitioners with the appropriate knowledge and skills to ensure the effectiveness of work and the continued growth and success of event management specialists (Arcodia & Reid, 2008: 61).

2.2.3 Definition of Special Event and Characteristics

Anton Shone and Bryn Parry define the term special event as the unique phenomenon, that arises from “those non-routine occasions, which have leisure, cultural, personal and organizational objectives set apart from the normal activity of daily life”, with the major goal – “to enlighten, celebrate, entertain the experience of a group of people” (2004: 3). Another expert in event management Joe Jeff Goldblatt pays special attention to the celebratory aspects of events, saying that “a special event recognizes a unique moment in time with ceremony and ritual to specify specific needs” (Shone & Parry, 2004: 3). This definition refers not only to weddings, inaugurations and parades, but also to sport competitions, art and music festivals, and other tourist attractions. Marian H. Wooten and William C. Norman state in their article Interpreting and Managing Special Events that as a rule, a special event occupies a unique position through its impacts on both the local population and the tourists as it provides “an opportunity for leisure, cultural and social experience outside the normal range of choices or beyond everyday activities” (2008: 198).  That is why most special events take place on a one time basis, e.g. once a year. Tahir Rashid, Razaq Raj and Paul Walters suggest that the term special event is widely used to “describe events that are first-class or extraordinary in terms of the widespread public recognition they receive.” (2008: 16). As a rule, special events improve the quality of life of the local population and attract many visitors from all over the world. The major goal of any special event is to “develop recognition for the local community and festival organizers” (Rashid et al., 2008: 17). The following special events are well-known throughout the world: Notting Hill Carnival, Berlin Love Parade, Bradford Mela, Toronto Street Festival, Britain’s Queen’ Jubilee celebration, and many other events.

Today special event industry holds a leading position in the competitive market, and “requires professional credentials on top of organizational and creative talents, practical industry experience and the passion and drive to succeed in business.” (Malouf, 2012: 4). It is also found that special events are attended by the local residents, tourists and former residents, who come to this or that city each year (Wooten & Norman, 2008: 199). In accordance with Torkildsen, special events are part of the country’s culture and history, and they are based on myths, legends and old traditions (2005: 467).

Understanding of the meaning of special event gives an opportunity to the organizers of art and music festivals and other visitors’ attractions to realize the major factors that have an enormous impact on the quality of event management. They pay special attention to the physical environment and “the use of personal construct theory and the ratings grid”, which are used to understand better the visitors’ experience (Wooten & Norman, 2008: 197).

In accordance with Torkildsen, the majority of events have similar methods and techniques of organization, including management approaches (2005: 474). The major components of planning event are decision making, planning and preparation, presentation and evaluation. Event planning should be comprehensive, taking into consideration any possible impacts, including environmental impacts, and socio-cultural impacts. It means that the community should have constant control over events (Dwayer et al., 2000: 177).  At the same time, the event should be properly directed to meet the major needs of the community, in accordance with Dimitri Tassiopoulos (2005: 8). According to the research conducted by Ritchie, “an understanding of visitor’s motivation, activity and attraction participation is needed” (Tassiopoulos, 2005: 8).

2.2.4 Classification of Events

Many sources inform of the fact that events can be of two types: major events and special events. Both terms can be used to describe a great number of different festivals, celebrations, sport competitions, ceremonies and art spectaculars, as well as different types of exhibitions, in accordance with Torkildsen (2005: 466).  Some experts in event management state that “the field of special events is now so vast that it is impossible to provide a definition that includes all the varieties and shades of events.” (Torkildsen, 2005: 466). Major events refer to the global industry, as they are “evidenced by the existence of the world body”, according to Torkildsen (2005: 466).  As a rule, major events attract a number of nations and generate “significant public interest through attendances and media coverage.” (Torkildsen, 2005: 467). In addition, major events have the following characteristics: they have the reputation of a must see event, attract considerable funds to the region, attract a large number of people (over a million of visitors), incorporate festivals, parades and other types of events, stimulate the necessity of the related services, involve prestige and status of the country, symbolism and old traditions, etc. (Tassiopoulos, 2005: 130).

The second type of events includes special local events which play a crucial role in any comprehensive leisure and recreation program.  It is known that special events can be classified as personal events, which include weddings and birthdays, leisure events, which are focused on sport and recreation activities, cultural events, which include art, folklore, heritage events, and organizational events, such as commercial, charitable, political activities, in accordance with Anton Shone and Bryn Parry (2004: 4). Here are some examples of special events: annual conferences, exhibitions of paintings, Roman wedding, annual music festivals, etc. Anton Shone and Bryn Parry state that today special events “vary tremendously in size and complexity: from the simple and small to huge, complex and international” (2004: 5). Festivals are also specific events. According to Marian H. Wooten and William C. Norman, “the term festival denotes a public themed celebration, or the so-called social phenomenon.” (2008:198). If this or that event is classified as a festival, it has the following characteristics: openness to public, representation of a specific theme, once a year occurrence. But what is more important is that this event should not “own permanent structures and contain all activities within a specific area or region” (Wooten & Norman, 2008: 198). According to Ashutosh Chaturvedi, there are several groups of events: business events, corporate events, fundraising events, exhibitions and trade fairs, concerts and live performances, entertaining events, festive events and government events, social and cultural events, sporting events and marketing events, etc. (2009: 3).

2.2.5 Overview of the Songkran Festival as a Special Event

     The Songkran festival is one of the special events hold each year in Thailand. As festivals can be viewed as “a collection of events which may be hold in outdoor spaces, indoor venue or a combination of both”, in accordance with Tahir Rashid, Razaq Raj and Paul Walters, the Songkran festival is a real festival which complies with the rules and regulations of the local society (2008: 27).  It is known that legislative and regulatory frameworks are of great importance in the event planning process. Festivals are considered to be cultural events. According to Dimitri Tassiopoulos, “festivals are mostly traditional with long histories.” (2005: 13). One of the definitions of festivals is the following: festivals are celebrations with a certain public theme, where the social and symbolic meaning of the event is closely connected with “a series of overt values that the community recognizes as essential to its ideology and world view, to its social identity, historical continuity and to its physical survival.” (Tassiopoulos, 2005: 13).  In addition, “festivals share many characteristics with other leisure events including carnivals, spectacles, parades, theatre, sporting events, and fairs”, in accordance with Erin K. Sharpe (2008: 219).  However, the so-called “lightheartedness of festivals distinguishes them from the more sinister “spectacle” or the more ribald “carnivalesque” leisure events” (Sharpe, 2008: 219). Today festivals are always full of fun and joy. The Songkran festival is also a very joyous event, which is closely connected with the values and beliefs of the host community and its religious ceremonies.

The Songkran festival is considered to be a “traditional Thai Buddhist New Year festival in which Buddha images are bathed.” (Richmond, 2010: 471). It is usually held in April-May. This popular event has become more colorful than it used to be 30-40 years earlier, in accordance with Erik Cohen (2001: 167). Today it attracts a growing number of visitors, who act not only as spectators, but also as active participants of this riotous event. The traditions of the Songkran festival, its unique celebratory rituals which include traditional dance and music, beauty contests, etc., prove the fact that this festival is very popular in Thailand. Barry Bell discusses the Songkran festival in his book Bangkok: Angelic Illusions. He states that “Songkran marks the Thai New Year, the start of summer and the impending rainy season.” (2004: 19).  This festival is also known as the Water festival, because one of its traditions is to spring drops of scented water on the hands of the participants. Today this tradition is replaced by a water fight. Although the Songkran festival is held on April, 13, it is considered to be a New Year’s Day. On that day the majority of families in Thailand visit temples and “sprinkle water on Buddha images in reverence, and then sprinkle water on each other’s hands as an act of wishing good luck.” (Bhaskar, 2009: 261).

2.3 Stakeholder Analysis

Stakeholder analysis plays a significant role in successful implementation of the major goals of any event. Stakeholder analysis can be defined as “the process of systematically gathering and analyzing qualitative information to determine whose interests should be taken into account when developing and implementing a program”, in accordance with Greg Richards and Robert Palmer (2012: 148).

Julia Rutherford Silvers states that it is of great importance to conduct a thorough stakeholder analysis which will provide the organizers of this or that event “with a clear picture of the role and scope of stakeholders in an event project and the strategies for effective communications with them.” (2008: 205).  As a rule, stakeholder analysis helps to identify and characterize the major stakeholders or groups of stakeholders, to determine what role is given to stakeholders in this or that event planning, to measure the influence of stakeholders, to “prioritize stakeholders according to their power, interest or influence”, and to identify certain links between stakeholders, in accordance with Julia Rutherford Silvers (2008: 205). It means that stakeholder analysis is focused on the major aspects of stakeholders’ nature, including not only their potential for cooperation, involvement or for opposition, but also their influence, power, the major interests, the ability to choose the appropriate communications techniques and methods, etc.

2.3.1 Stakeholder Definitions and Characteristics

It is found that stakeholders are “people or organizations who have invested in an event”, in accordance with Joe Jeff Goldblatt (2004: 14). For example, the stakeholders of such event as a festival include not only the board of directors, but also “the political officials, the municipal staff, the participants and the utility companies” (Goldblatt, 2004:14). Stakeholders can be characterized as internal and external. As a rule, the leader of the event identifies internal and external stakeholders. Internal stakeholders are the members of the board, the professional staff of the organization, a guest or a visitor, or other persons that are closely connected with the event. External stakeholders are mass media and municipal officials, the agencies of the city or others. Joe Jeff Goldblatt states that “a stakeholder does not have to invest money in an event to be considered for this role”, because emotional, political or personal interest of stakeholders can be “the evidence of investment in an event” (2004: 14). In accordance with Goldblatt’s model for the event management, stakeholders include individuals, groups of individuals, or organizations which have financially, politically, emotionally or personally invested in an event.

In addition, there is another definition of stakeholders. Getz defines festival stakeholders as “those people and groups with a stake in the event and its outcomes, including all groups participating in the event production, sponsors and grant givers, community representatives and everyone impacted by the event” (Go & Govers, 2011: 51). Moreover, it is very important to mention that identification of stakeholders as well as their classification play an important role in the management of festivals and other events (Kayat, 2008: 98).  In some cases, stakeholders may be identified in terms of their impact on the achievement of the major aims of the festival. There are five major categories of stakeholders, in accordance with Frank Go and Robert Govers (2011: 52). They include fringe society stakeholders (fringe society staff, board members, and volunteers), participating stakeholders (promoters, performers, etc.), attending stakeholders (audience, attendees), supporting stakeholders (financial and non-financial ones: grant funding supporters, independent funders and sponsor), primary supplier stakeholders (program design agency members, etc.). Frank Go and Robert Govers suggest that secondary stakeholders include the media, the government, the emergency agencies, different tourism-related organizations, tourists and visitors, and local community members (2011: 53).

Moreover, special attention should be paid to the number of stakeholders. In accordance with Glenn Bowdin, “more stakeholders mean more objectives that the event has to meet” (2010: 284). It is found that the number of stakeholders may change. Some stakeholders may leave the process of the event planning. Of course, it can lead to uncertainty in the major objectives of the event (Bowdin, 2010: 284).

2.3.2 Stakeholders of the Songkran Festival

The Songkran festival’s direct and primary stakeholders include sponsors, suppliers, spectators, attendees, and participants in the event – all those people without whom the Songkran festival would not exist. Secondary stakeholders of the Songkran festival include the members of host community and the government, all emergency services and the major business organizations, including restaurants and hotels, as well as the mass media, including the journalists who represent TV, radio, and the printed media, and tourism organizations and agencies – all of them have a direct interest in the program of this event. In addition, different stakeholders of the Songkran festival imply different degrees of power. Those stakeholders who are funding the event and provide the major cultural content of the event and the audience usually have more power. It means that those stakeholders who have more power can express their wishes, and impose their will on the program of the event (Richards & Palmer, 149).

2.4 Event Impacts

It is found that events have both positive and negative impacts on the local communities.  In accordance with D. Tassiopoulos and D. Johnson, today “events are emerging globally” as one of the most significant sectors of economy, and are seen as having significant economic, socio-cultural, environmental and even political impacts (2009: 76). Charles Arcodia and Michelle Whitford state that such events as “festivals are emerging worldwide as a growing and vibrant sector of the tourism and leisure industries and are seen to have significant economic, socio-cultural, and political impacts on the destination area and host groups”(2006: 1). In accordance with Omar Moufakkir and Ian Kelly, “the management and staging of events lead to different types of direct and indirect event impacts”, which can be divided into six areas: “economic, physical, socio-cultural, psychological, political and environmental” (2010: 102). Some experts suggest that the success of the event depends on the measurement of its economic contribution to the stakeholders of the event, the host community and the region. The recent research shows that positive socio-cultural and psychological impacts of events are focused on the opportunities of communities and visitors “to come together to socialize and to be entertained, to develop contacts, friendships and networks” (Moufakkir & Kelly, 2010: 102). There are a number of other impacts which can be used to improve host community spirit and pride, to enhance cultural traditions and attitudes of local people, their beliefs and values. In addition, events can have an enormous impact on intercultural learning, and social and health amenities, in accordance Omar Moufakkir and Ian Kelly (2010: 102). The major negative impacts of events include the increase in anti-social behavior, acts of hooliganism, vandalism, stampedes, increased criminal activity, acts of violence and numerous arrests during the events. These impacts reduce the quality of life of local residents who are directly or indirectly involved in the event. That is why understanding the major impacts, which can arise from events, is one of the most important steps to develop the appropriate strategies of maintaining the benefits needed by the host community.

2.4.1 Economic Impacts

Economic impacts of events are focused on the additional expenditures flowing into the local community economy. It is found that expenditures by local residents cannot be viewed as additional as the funds are “switched from one local destination to another”, according to Egbert Roelof Oldenboom (2006: 28). In addition, events have an enormous impact on the separate branches of local industry, which may include accommodation, restaurants, and transportation. Anja Wyludda states that “the economic effects on the nation are mostly tangible effects, because they can be measured precisely” (2009: 11). Those events that attract a large number of people are recognized as having positive economic effects on the local towns and cities, because visitors are read to spend their money on different services, including “accommodation, retail, food and drink, and other activities”, according to Razaq Raj and James Musgrave (2009: 59). It means that different types of events have different economic impacts on the host communities. The majority of experts suggest that “the potential economic impact of an event is determined by the nature of the event, its location, some seasonal and geographical factors (McCann & Thompson, 1992: 26).  As most events are focused on the impacts on local economies, local authorities are engaged in justifying the spending of public money (Saayman & Saayman, 2006: 576).  The major reason of this fact is that “events have the potential to generate a vast amount of tourism when they cater to out-of-region visitors, grants and sponsorships of direct and indirect intend.” (Raj & Musgrave, 2009: 59). Today many festivals and events are based on the long term and highly valued by the majority of event organizers, the representatives of the local and national government organizations, and the community members, “because of the economic sustainability they generate for the local community through event tourism.” (Raj & Musgrave, 2009: 59). It means that today events are used to link tourism and commerce through effective destination planning. In this case, events can be viewed as “image makers, economic benefit generators and tourist attractions, overcoming seasonality”, contributing to the development of the host community and business organizations, and providing support to the major industrial sectors of the region. However, many festivals and events provide greater economic sustainability to host communities by intensive “development of employment, additional trade and business development, considerable investment in infrastructure, long-term promotional benefits and tax revenues”, in accordance with Razaq Raj and James Musgrave (2009: 60).

2.4.2 Environmental Impacts

It is found that the major environmental impacts on the local communities are controlled by the government of the country and analyzed by the private industry in order to determine the major economic goals. L. Davide discusses the major environmental impacts of events in his article. He states that “events have direct and indirect connections with the environment.” (David, 2009: 66). It is clear that people make some impact on the environment in the process of travelling. As the event industry is growing and can be viewed as one of the major sectors of the world economy, it has both positive and negative impacts on the surrounding environment (both natural and man-made environment) and local population (Green et al., 1990: 110).  The major impacts on the natural environment include air pollution, water pollution, depletion of natural resources, flora and fauna, and some geological factors. The major impacts on the man-made environment include serious building and visual impacts, certain changes in the use of land and infrastructure. There are also serious impacts on ecosystem (David, 2009: 67). During festivals held in this or that city, there may be such environmental impacts caused by a large number of visitors and longer stays, as increased pollution, constant discharges into the soul, natural habitat loss, great pressures on the local resources, including energy and food supplies, problems with transportation, air pollution (increased level of CO2 emissions) and noise pollution, and serious problems with water consumption (David, 2009: 69).

2.4.3 Socio-cultural Impacts

According to Razaq Raj and James Musgrave, “events can have social impacts that are seen to strengthen community structures, enhance community cohesion and develop close ties with different ethnic group.” (2009: 60). Kathie Small, Deborah Edwards and Lynnaire Sheridan state that community-based festivals and events have an enormous impact on culture and traditions of the host community (2005: 66). Socio-cultural impacts may be defined as the effects of celebrations which “encompass a diverse range of themes from the specific, food and wine, through to multi-faceted celebrations” and specially “designed to occur for a limited duration that celebrate valued aspects of a community’s way of life” (Small et al., 2005: 66-67).

The major social impacts of the community-based festivals and events include not only crowded streets, shops and facilities, traffic congestion and increased prices for some goods and services, but also increased job and business opportunities, increased local pride, increased crime rate and vandalism, increased entertainment opportunities (Small et al, 2005: 73). The major cultural impacts include increased awareness of the local residents of the cultural activities and increased interest in the region’s culture, traditions and history, serious impact on the character of the host community and on educational experience through interaction with visitors (Small et al., 2005: 73).

2.5 Socio-Cultural Impacts of the Songkran Festival held in Bangkok, Thailand

It is found that today socio-cultural impacts of events are widely discussed in literature. In general, special attention is paid to the negative impacts of events on society and culture (Kim & Uysal, 2003: 159).  However, it is also necessary to realize that the impact of events, including art and music festivals, can also be positive, in accordance with John Swarbrooke (1999: 71).

2.5.1 Types of Socio-Cultural Impacts

There are many types of socio-cultural impacts caused by events. One of the types of socio-cultural impacts of events is “an increase in the permanent level of local interest and participation in type of activity associated with the event”, according to Seymour H. Fine (1992: 263). In addition, socio-cultural impacts are focused on strengthening of the community’s traditions and values. On the negative side, socio-cultural impacts of events include commercialization of activities, which may cause damage and event destroy the established socio-cultural values and traditions of the local community that should be developed in the course of the event, in accordance with Seymour H. Fine (1992: 262).

It is found that many events require the services which are provided by the members of the host community. It means that today the majority of events have the potential to bring about social benefits by creating employment opportunities. As a rule, events have an enormous impact on the infrastructure and environmental improvements within host communities. Although new employment may be viewed as a short-lived benefit for community members, many local people will be able to earn some money from this or that event. The other benefit has an enormous socio-cultural impact is the preservation, or revival of cultural traditions and customs which “might have seen long since died out”, in accordance with Joy Standeven and Paul De Knop (1999: 204). Moreover, Joy Standeven and Paul De Knop state that socio-cultural impacts can have wider significance that may be concluded in lack of mutual understanding between the visitors or guests and community members (1999: 205).  In addition, negative impacts of events may be connected with traffic congestion and crowing. These impacts may lead to the reduction of the quality of life of the host community members.

Furthermore, the most serious negative socio-cultural impacts may arise from the increase in crime rate and aggressive behavior of the visitors. Such illegal actions as acts of vandalism, theft, hooliganism, and other harmful actions may destroy interpersonal relations between the visitors and host community members. In addition, many visitors may suffer from the elevated price of tickets that are “bought through the black market”, in accordance with Joy Standeven and Paul De Knop (1999: 205).

2.5.2 The Major Socio-Cultural Impacts of the Songkran Festival

The Songkran festival, which is held in Bangkok each year in April, has both positive and negative socio-cultural impacts. It is not a secret that the New Year and the Songkran Festival are considered to be the long holidays in Thailand that encourage several millions of visitors who travel to and from their hometown. It is found that in 2001–2003, there was a serious increase in injuries the participants of the festival got during the event. The statistics shows that “there was increase two times patients comparing with an average number of patients per day.” (Phonburee et al., 2010: 201). So, each year the majority of hospitals in Bangkok prepare to effectively manage multiple casualty incidents during this event.

In addition, it is found that the Songkran festival leads to a number of traffic accidents. One of the recent researches proves the fact that “road traffic accident (RTA) causes serious injuries and fatalities among passengers during long holidays such as New Year and Songkran festival in Bangkiok.” (Saipan et al., 2010: 203). The researchers suggest that the incidence occurred two or three times more compared to normal period. The major risks of road traffic accidents include alcohol drinking drivers, high speed drivers and those who do not use safety equipment to reduce the risk of RTA. However, today the government of Thailand attempts to improve the situation.  For example, Ubon Ratchathani province in Thailand covers over 1.8 million people. Today this province has already introduced the Ubon Road safety committee which does everything possible to reduce the number of road traffic accidents during this event. The activities developed and implemented by this organization include “prevention measures, control accident, medical care with collaborations from several sectors” (Saipan et al., 2010: 205).

Besides the above mentioned facts, the Songkran festival has an enormous impact on the behavior of the participants of this event. One of the recent studies on the Songkran festival’s impacts, assesses “the prevalence and associated factors of non-seatbelt use among drivers during the Songkran festival in Thailand” (Siviroj et al., 2012:1). More than 30% of non-seatbelt use among drivers was found, in accordance with Siviroj, Peltzer, Pengpid and Morarit (2012: 1). Such factors as environmental factors, seatbelt use experiences of drivers and the lower exposure to road safety awareness during the Songkran festival always have an enormous impact on the community safety. In addition, the use of alcohol during the festival increases the risk of traffic accidents (Toomey et al., 2006: 13).

As the Songkran festival is one of the oldest festivals in Thailand, it is possible to conclude that this event (as well as many other similar festivals) has its impact on the culture of the nation and on the oldest traditions (Arcodia, & Whitford, 2006: 2). The researchers state that this festival is more than a thousand years old. It is found that originally, a propitiation to the major Thai Gods for good health, longevity and fertility, and fruitful harvest was marked by a ceremony of bathing (Kwon, 2008: 87).The two-day Songkran festival is focused on religious activities, public entertainment, a well-known beauty contest and a number of Thai food and merchandise booths. The Wat Thai temple is one of the places in Bangkok which is used for celebration of the Thai traditional New Year (Tamaki, 1998: 2). Moreover, the Songkran is observed by such religious activities as listening to sermons in the temple, offering food to the monks and bathing the statue of Buddha. The observers have an opportunity to mark the day by asking their elderly relatives for forgiveness or blessing (Vaitayavanich et al., 2011: 68).

In addition, the visitors who come to Bangkok in order to take part in the Songkran festival, have a chance to visit the city’s places of interest, including Ratanokosin, Chinatown and Indian Puharat, old palaces, temples and unique squares, the city’s largest markets, restaurants and museums. That is why it is possible to conclude that the Songkran festival is a so-called “tool” used for promoting tourism in Thailand.

2.5.3 Some recommendations to restrict the negative impacts and encourage the positive impacts for the future

It is recommended to inform the participants of the Songkran festival of the possible consequences of their activities, including water activities.  In this case, it is of great importance to give the appropriate instructions concerning the behavior of the participants (both the guests and local people) during the festival. It is better to distribute special leaflets with warning to avoid possible injuries during the festival.

In order to maximize the positive impact of the Songkran festival, it is recommended to include this event into the special tourism program with some other activities for the tourists from other countries including visiting museums and old palaces.

In addition, it is recommended to improve the work of the local police in order to reduce the increased number of traffic accidents during the event. It will be better to involve more police officers who will be able to control the behavior of the festival’s participants. The planners of the festival should encourage institutions, local residents and the event tourism industry “to create a social fabric that not only serves commercial purposes but also reinforces mutual respect, beneficial relationships, and social identities”, in accordance with Settachai (2008:3).

2.6 Resident Perception

One of the recent studies shows that community perceptions of event’s impacts are focused on community values. In some cases these values are placed against all the event’s activities undertaken by the participants of the event, including visiting temples and other religious places. Although the economic benefits of events are seen to be positive. As a rule, “employment and income generation receives more than 80% positive response”, in accordance with the recent study (Staiff & Ongkhluap, 2007: 49). In the case of socio-cultural impacts of events, less than 50% of respondents see a positive relationship and more than 20% perceive absolutely negative relationship, while 22% of residents see no impact of events on their values, in accordance with the research (Staiff & Ongkhluap, 2007: 49).

Moreover, Cooper as well as many other experts pay special attention to the following factors that influence the attitude of local residents and guests towards attention events: “their age, education, income levels, and socio-economic background”, in accordance with Tassiopoulos and Johnson (2009: 77). As a rule, local people of developing countries, including Thailand, put high hopes for success and tend to have positive attitudes towards tourism, including event tourism (Hong Long, 2012: 36). It means that the majority of residents value the benefits of event impacts, despite the perception of such negative impacts as increased crime rate, violence and lack of understanding between the guests and the locals (Ritchie, 1984: 10).  As a rule events are associated with tourism industry, which supports local economy, provides employment opportunities, as well as investment –business opportunities, according to Hong Long (2012: 36). In addition, event business provides good opportunities for the development of cultural activities and recreational activities.

2.6.1 Social Exchange Theory

It is known that social exchange theory introduced by John Ap can be viewed as “a possible theoretical base for understanding local residents’ perceptions of local tourism”, in accordance with Murphy (2004: 43). In accordance with Andereck and McGehee, such events as festivals have “great potential to affect the lives of community residents in both positive and negative ways.” (2009: 236). One of the main advantages of applying this theory to this or that case are based on the explanation of both positive and negative perceptions of host community members. This theory attempts to help in evaluation of relationships between local population and visitors on both the individual and collective levels. According to social exchange theory, an exchange process can be viewed as “a unique temporal relationship” in which each transaction is connected with the history and future for the participants involved in the process (Murphy, 2004: 44). The major components of any exchange process are based on the need satisfaction (Shu-Tzu Chuang, 2010: 1315).  These components are focused on the following processes: initiation of the exchange, a positive exchange formation, an exchange transaction evaluation, a positive/ negative evaluation of the exchange consequences, and a withdrawal from the process, in accordance with Murphy (2004: 43).

It is found that John Ap developed and applied social exchange theory in order to explain certain changes in host destinations in response to event management development. In addition, social exchange theory is focused on the exchange of resources between the groups of individuals in the interaction process. Moreover, this theory gives clear explanation to the variability in response to tourism industry, including event management industry, by individuals or groups of individuals who participate in the social exchange process (Ap, 1992: 326). In case local people of the destination theoretically believe that tourism business is a valuable source for their community, and the costs they gain in the process of this business never exceed the benefits, the exchange is used to support tourism development in this area. John Ap defines this theory as “a general sociological theory concerned by understanding the exchange of resources between individuals and groups in an interaction situation.”  (Andereck & McGehee, 2009: 246). In accordance with Maureen Baker, social exchange theory is “derived from symbolic interactionism”, but is focused on the use of the economic analogies taken from cost-benefit analysis (2001: 78). It means that in the context of event management studies, social exchange theory can be used for explanation of variation in local residents’ perceptions or their attitudes towards this or that event (Belisle & Hoy, 1980: 99). In other words, those local people who benefit from event business will “tend to be positive in their attitudes towards this or that event, and its continuance”, while those people who perceive no benefit from event will “tend to be more critical and less supportive.” (Getz, 2012: 72).

It is found that John Ap is not the only researcher who suggests that “social exchange theory is helpful in understanding residents’ perceptions of the impacts of tourism and that exchange behavior in relation to perceptions.” (Ritchie & Adair, 2004: 165). There are many other experts who support this theory. This theory can be applied to the analysis of the Songkran festival in Bangkok, Thailand. The majority of residents benefit from this event through employment and through increased turnover in business operations (Keogh, 1990: 440).  In addition, many local people perceive a benefit from this event in the form of entertainment opportunities (Deery, & Jago, 2010: 8).

2.6.2 Small’s Social Impact Model

It is found that the increasing popularity of events and festivals that occur in different parts of the world, “coupled with their positive and negative impacts on host communities, has led to a growing body of research on the impacts of festivals and events”, in accordance with Katie Small (2005: 66).  Katie Small also states that a substantial amount of this research assesses the major economic impacts of events and festivals; that is why there is a necessity to measure the socio-cultural impacts of events and festivals. Small’s social impact model is focused on the social impact evaluation of festivals and on the measurement of the host community perceptions of the major socio-cultural impacts of events. Kathie Small has developed a Social Impact Evaluation framework which includes six stages (Fig.1) in accordance with their “appropriateness to the evaluation of the socio-cultural impacts of a small community festival” (Small et al., 2005: 69).

Stage 1 – Describe

Stage 2 – Profile

Stage 3 – Identify

Stage 4 – Project

Stage 5 – Evaluate

Stage 6 – Feedback

Fig. 1 Social Impact Evaluation Framework

In the stage 1, Kathie Small suggests that it is necessary to describe the main characteristics of the event, including type, the major activities, location and time; physical layout, geographic setting, organization and funding structures of the event. In the stage 2, it is recommended to “produce a destination profile for the event host community”, including the major characteristics of the groups of local residents (Small et al., 2005: 70). In the third stage, it is necessary to identify the potential socio-cultural impacts that may occur as a result of the event, using the combination of different methods, such as interviews, brainstorming by a panel of experts, “desk research of existing impact literature”, etc. In the stage 4, it is very important “to project the socio-cultural impacts that are likely to occur from hosting of the festival” (Small et al., 2005: 70). The fifth stage is focused on the evaluation of the perceived socio-cultural impacts of the festival or event that is carried out after the festival or event. The major goal is to determine the overall impact on the community or the attitude of the host community members to the festival. Evaluation should be made thorough data collection and analysis. The sixth stage is focused on the findings that are communicated to event organizers and stakeholders. This stage gives an opportunity to develop effective strategies that can help to capitalize on positive impacts of the event, and to ameliorate negative impacts in the nearest future.

To achieve stages four and five of the Social Impact Evaluation Framework and to measure the socio-cultural impacts of festivals and events, the researchers developed a Social Impact Perception (SIP) scale, which comprises 45 different impact statements and consists of three parts “measuring 1) the overall impacts of the event, 2) the specific impacts of the event, and 3) the independent variables (including contact with tourists, participation, identification with the theme etc.)”, in accordance with Small et al. (2005: 71). The SIP scale is based on the 5-point scale ranging from –5 to +5 which is used to separate the data, facilitate the observation process of negative and positive rankings.

2.6.3 Resident Perception Variables

According to social exchange theory, it is expected that local residents who gain employment through the Songkran festival and those residents who perceive that the organization they work is in benefits from this event, “would derive greater benefits” from the Songkran festival than other local residents (Ritchie & Adair, 2004: 168). That is why they would have more positive perceptions. It means that those local people who work in organizations, that benefits from this event, “have higher levels of direct experience than other residents”, in accordance with Brent W. Ritchie and Daryl Adair (2004: 168).

There are several factors that can be viewed as the major discriminating factors and that can explain the obvious differences in the reactions to the events (Brougham, & Butler, 1981: 546).  They include the following: the social and political values of local residents, their perception towards their ability and desire to participate in the event, the local residents’ level of attachment to the community, and “their perception of justice in the process of distribution of costs and benefits of the event.” (Ritchie & Adair, 2004: 168).

In addition, it is found that the significant variation in motivation and perceived benefits of the festivals occurs across genders. The findings of the resent research reveal that “younger attendees seem to place more importance on socialization and event loyalty, and older attendees place more importance on family togetherness”, in accordance with Medel Yolal, Fatmagul Cetinel and Muzaffer Uysal (2009: 276). In addition, multiple classification analyses prove the fact that “as age increases, so does the importance placed on event novelty” (Yolal et al., 2009: 277).

2.7 Conclusion

In conclusion, it is necessary to say that today festivals and special events serve as the major attractors for destinations which guarantee unique experiences for the visitors from all over the world. It is found that these events have the capability of providing both tangible and intangible benefits for host communities. Most of the recent studies and research works which are dealing with festivals and other events have been focused on the understanding of the behavior of attendees or on the economic impacts of visitation upon host communities in which these events are organized. However, little research has been done to explore and analyze the socio-cultural importance of these events.

The Songkran festival is one of the most popular events in Thailand. Today the Songkran festival can be viewed as a vehicle for the local community to host thousands of visitors each year and to share with them different festive activities, which are based on communally agreed values and beliefs, interests and aspirations. Moreover, the special events as the Songkran festival manifest the identity of the community and tell a lot about the place and its people.

The information represented in this chapter proves the fact that the residents’ perceptions as well as their attitudes towards the impacts of events and the development of event industry, especially in developing countries, is still a relatively new concern for the researchers and scholars. In Thailand, up to the present time, a rather small number of researches of this type have been made.