The Odyssey essay
Homer’s poem “The Odyssey” was created in the first third of the first millennium BC, in Ionia. The main plot lines of the poem are the wanderings of Odysseus and the siege of the house of his wife Penelope by suiters with further destruction of them, performed by Odysseus after returning. Thus, the centers of these two series of events are the two heroes – Odysseus and his wife, Penelope.
Odysseus is the king of the island of Ithaca, son of Laertes and Anticlea. Genealogy of the Odysseus is closely connected with the general intelligent and cunning character of the hero. According to some versions of the myth, Odysseus is the son of Sisyphus, who seduced Anticlea before her marriage to Laertes. Moreover, Anticlea’s father Autolycus, a great perjurer and a thief (Homer, “The Odyssey” XIX 396) was the son of Hermes and helped him in all the tricks (396-398), hence the hereditary intelligence, practicality, and agility of Odysseus coming from Hermes.
Originally the biography of Odysseus was not connected with the events of the Trojan War, with its developed heroic mythological basis, and belonged to adventurous and fantastic stories in the spirit of the common folk motifs: long sea voyage constantly threatening by death, the hero going through the other world, the return of the husband in the moment when his wife is threatened by a new marriage. However, the Ionian branch of Homeric epos about the Trojan War transformed these motifs, bringing in a number of important ideas: return to the homeland, self-sacrificing love to home, suffering of the hero experiencing the wrath of the gods, hence the name of Odysseus (Greek odyssao, “angry”) – the man of the “divine wrath” (Homer, “The Odyssey” XIX 407), “hated” by the gods.
The inclusion of Odysseus in the number of the leaders of the Trojan War leads to the formation of ideas about the military exploits of Odysseus, his decisive role in his capture of Troy (the motif of the wooden horse invented by Odysseus), and heroization of the folklore trickster as “sacker of cities” (Homer, “The Odyssey” I 2; XXII 230; Homer, “The Iliad”, II 278; X 363). Odyssey is the most outstanding figure of the Ionian branch of the epos. He is the carrier of practical wisdom, tireless energy, and visionary ability to find way outs in difficult circumstances, the ability to speak eloquently and convincingly, and art of dealing with people. Here, in comparison with the heroes of earlier mythological strata, such as Diomedes, Telamonian Ajax, or even Achilles, Odysseus’ innovation is that he wins not only with weapons, but with the word and the reason (Homer, “The Odyssey” III 221-224).
Odysseus is “most glorious” (XI 396), “great-hearted” (Homer, “The Odyssey” IV 143, XV 2). In archery only Philoctetes surpassed him (VIII 179-181). Homer emphasizes his “perfection” (II 225). However, he acknowledges to king Alcinous that he is “known among men for all manner of wiles” (IX 19). Athena confirms that even god can hardly compete with Odysseus in “all manner of guile” (XIII 291 -295). In the Ionian cycle, a clever hero is brought to the forefront; an epithet “resourceful Odysseus” includes the whole range of transitions from elementary tricks to making the most complex intellectual constructs. Odysseus finds his place in the Odyssey, a poem on the return, in which the adventurous and fairy-tale motifs and the image of Odysseus enriched with the heroic content are combined into a qualitatively new unity.
Odysseus proved himself even before the Trojan War began. From among the many suitors of Queen Helen, Odysseus prefers her cousin Penelope, niece of Tyndareus and takes her as his wife. However, after Paris kidnaps Helen, Odyssey has to take part in the campaign for Troy. Not wanting to leave his beloved wife and newly born son, Telemachus, Odysseus pretends to be insane, but is accused of hypocrisy by Palamedes (which is why Odysseus kills him later), having tried out Odysseus on his love for his son.
Odysseus departs for Troy with twelve ships (Homer, “The Iliad” II 631-637). In turn, he helps the Greeks to find Achilles hidden by Thetis on the island of Scyros, and distinguish him among the servants of Deidamia, the daughter of King Lycomedes. Then Odysseus promises to deliver to Aulis Iphigenia who is bond to be sacrificed to Artemis. Also on his advice the Greeks leave wounded Philoctetes on the island of Lemnos (whom he later brings with the bow of Heracles to Troy on the tenth year of the war).
Before the outbreak of war Odyssey went to Troy with Menelaus, trying unsuccessfully to settle the matter peacefully (Homer, “The Iliad” III 205-224). During the siege of the city Odysseus in an insidious way revenges on Palamedes, believing him to be his enemy. In the last year of the war, Odysseus and Diomedes capture the Trojan spy Dolon and make a night raid against Thracian king Rees newly arrived to help the Trojans (X 339-514). After the death of Achilles, he is awarded with the armor of the dead hero, which Telamonian Ajax also pretended to (Homer, “The Odyssey” XI 543-564). Having captured the Trojan prophet Helenus, Odysseus learns from him that one of the conditions of victory is the possession of the statue of Pallas Athena (palladium) located in her temple in Troy. Under the guise of a beggar Odysseus enters the besieged city and kidnaps the palladium. Odysseus undertakes the delivery of Neoptolemus from the island of Skyros; according to one version, his was also the idea of building the wooden horse (V 14).
Adventurous and fantastic motifs of Odysseus’ biography are imbued with the dramatic motif of his suffering. He is “man of pain” and the gods know that (Homer, “The Odyssey” I 59-62). With his constant piety Odysseus find himself in such situations, where this piety is disturbed either by himself or his companions, and this leads to more suffering and deaths (V 423; XIX 275 ff., 363-367).
Cruelty and harshness Odyssey are the heritage of archaic heroism, so they are lost in the background, giving way to a new intellectual heroism, continuously protected by Athena as her favorite child, and which is aimed at cognition of the world and its wonders. Characteristically Odyssey contains opposition between the ancient terrible world ruled by ogres, sorcerers, magic, wild Poseidon with his wild son Polyphemus, and clever, sharp, resourceful Athena, leading the hero home in spite of all the obstacles. Led by Athena, Odysseus escapes from the world of attracting dangerous miracles, which are either on the verge of another life, like the island of Calypso (“the one that hides”), or treated as being blissful world of the underworld (Pheaces) or evil magic (Circe).
Not only Olympians are helping Odysseus like Hermes with his magic grass, but he also makes the evil sorcery of Circe serve him, turning it for good, going fearlessly into Hades with a full awareness of its future destiny. No wonder the gods are afraid that if they do not return Odysseus home, he will return there himself “in spite of fate”. Thus, an adventurous and fantastic story, once in the scope of the heroic narrative, obtains serious ennobled features. And this unity contributes to the formation of the complex image of the hero, going beyond the scope of pure epos, with a new constitution, with Homeric drama, humor and lyrical motifs.
In turn, Penelope is the daughter of Icarius and the nymph Periboea, the wife of Odysseus and cousin of Helena. In the global culture the name of Penelope, who was waiting for the return of her beloved husband for 20 years, became the personification of a faithful wife. In the absence of Odysseus Penelope is precipitated by numerous suitors, the young men of the best families of Ithaca and the surrounding islands. But Penelope, knowing that the power is on their side, acts cunningly and avoids the choice of a new husband in every way: first she refuses to choose the groom, believing in the prophecy that Odysseus is alive and will return to her, then for three years she deceives suitors, promising that she will make the choice after she weaves the burial shroud for her father in law Laertes, unweaving at night what she managed to weave during the day.
In this way, Penelope, just like her husband is endowed with a number of heroic qualities: she has intelligence, loyalty, modesty, reverence to gods and customs of their ancestors, as well as cunning and bloodthirsty to a certain extent. Homer also constantly endows his heroine with the epithet “reasonable,” but Penelope, thrifty and frugal housewife, is ready to sacrifice everything she has not to become the wife of another. Therefore, she puts up with the fact that young men in constant feasts are bringing to nought her husband’s estate. At the same time cunning Penelope offers her suitors to bring her gifts and accepts them, giving evasive promises. At the same time, Penelope has the nobility of soul, shares concepts of honor and dignity, kindness and hospitality in meeting guests. She also does not shun labor and embroiders cloth to the alleged marriage, trying to pull its approach, as well as takes care of the elder.
After 20 years, Odysseus, disguised by Athena finally returns home and not recognized by anyone witnesses atrocities of the suitors forcing Penelope to choose a new husband. Odysseus has to fight with Irus the beggar and experience all sorts of scorn from the suitors. Introducing himself to Penelope as a Cretan who met Odysseus, he tries to inspire her confidence in the return of the spouse. Meanwhile, the old servant Euryclea, whom Penelope asks to wash the wanderer’s feet, recognizes Odysseus by a scar on his leg, but keeps the secret under the fear of punishment. Faced with her husband and not recognizing him, Penelope tells him about her grief, asks the permission to wash his feet, feed and clothe him.
The goddess Athena inspires Penelope the idea to arrange a contest in archery from the bow which belonged to Odysseus; one of the suitors who can shoot from the bow of Odysseus and wins the contest would become her husband. However, none of them is even able to pull the string; then Odysseus grabs the bow and arrows and together with Telemachus and with Athena’s help kills all of his offenders. Odysseus reveals himself to Penelope who has lost all hope for his return, however, Penelope’s prudence and caution are expressed in the fact that she does not immediately trust the person who claims to be her husband, but exposes him to a test. Although Penelope feels sympathy for the stranger resembling Odysseus, she recognizes him as her husband only being convinced that he knows the secret known to only two of them (Homer, “The Odyssey” XXIII 173-230), that is, after he tells her about the specifics of their marital bed once constructed by Odysseus.
The image of Penelope, as, in fact, the majority of female characters in the poems of Homer, is characterized by certain passivity. Penelope, though forced, but still submits to the circumstances that dominate over her. However, Homer’s image of Penelope goes beyond the representations of the female character dominated in his era. Penelope’s external passive behavior in dealing with the suitors, her uncomplaining submission to her son, Telemachus, by the one word of whom she dutifully goes to her room – all of this is outshined by her faith and devotion. The attractiveness of Penelope’s image is that behind her passive waiting for her missing husband is hiding more active and heroic feeling. European artists have repeatedly appealed to the image of Penelope usually portraying her weaving.
The epic nature of Penelope’s character is revealed in her devotion to her husband – the national hero of Ithaca. Penelope hardly thinks about herself, she is devoid of selfish traits, she does not care about the way she looks, and she is not trying to rebuild her lives. All her thoughts are focused on the expectation and sorrow on Odysseus, the complete submission of her life to the original duty of a spouse, though twenty years passed since their vows. Nothing can weaken or extinguish this love and duty: neither years nor rumors of the death of Odysseus, nor the grooms’ harassment or selfish considerations. Penelope stays the embodiment of fidelity, ideal constancy of feelings, and resistance against all temptations.
On a whole, the image of Penelope takes the first place in the entire gallery of female images created by the world literature: it is containing the view of the ancient Greeks on a woman, an ideal wife, while the epic character of myth about Odysseus make him one of the greatest warriors, able to perform any heroic deeds. The reuniting of spouses ends up with the consent of Zeus, who allows Athena to establish peace between Odysseus and the relatives of the killed suitors, and Odysseus remains to peacefully reign on Ithaca.
